dhanya :

Sali consists of dried root of Oryza sativa Linn. (Fam. Poacem); an annual herb, cultivated throughout India.

Rice is the most widely grown tropical cereal, and over 400 million tonnes of milled rice is produced each year. The importance of rice has been recognised for many centuries - in India it was once known as dhanya meaning the sustainer of the human race. Rice is a staple food of South Asia and a vast number of people are employed in its cultivation.

HISTORICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL REVIEW:

The history of rice domestication is not fully understood. Its wild ancestor, Oryza rufipogon , grows throughout south and southeast Asia, and finds of rice at early sites in the region may derive from harvesting of wild grain, rather than cultivation.

The earliest records of domesticated rice are probably those from the Lower Yangtze river valley of southern China, dating from about 6000 BC. Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that rice spread slower than most crops, in part owing to its specialised need for abundant water. For example, rice did not become an important crop in North America until the late 17th century.

Taxonomical Classification

Kingdom: Plantae - Plants
Subkingdom: Streptophyta
Division: Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Oryza
Species: Oryza sativa

Allied species:

Wild rice is produced from an entirely different species of grass,Zizania palustris , and is harvested from wild plants in North America.

VERNACULAR NAMES

Sanskrit: dhanya, vrihi, shali, shalibheda, dirghashuka, vrihibheda, cina, dardura, dusaka, hayanaka, jatumukha, kalama, kardama shali, kuruvinda
English: rice (husked), paddy (unhusked)
Hindi: चावल Chaval
Urdu: chawal
Telugu: biyam, biyyam, dhanyamu
Bengali: ধান Dhan
Marathi: tandul, bhat, pendha
Konkani: -
Oriya: dhano
Gujarathi: Shalichokha, Bhata, Corava, Damgara, Coke
Tamil: arishi, arisi, nellu
Malayalam: ari, navaranellu, nellu
Kannada: akki, bhatta
Punjabi: Dhan, Jhona
Marwadi: -
Sindhi: -
Kandha: -
Munda: -
Santal: -
Arabic: -أُرْز
Spanish: -: arroz
Mexican: -
Assamese: ধান Dhan
Japanese: -米
Chinese: - 大米 (dàmǐ) (粒, lì)
Deccan: -
Ceylon: -
French: -riz
German: -Reis
Burma: -
Nepal: -चामल
Persian: --برنج
Sinhalese: -සහල්
Tulu: -
Greek: ρύζι

Varities:

Navara has 2 varieties -

1. Black Glumed Navara

2. Golden Yellow Glumed navara

1. Black Glumed Navara - it matures in 60 -90 days. the seeds are red in colour. it grows upto 1m. it cultivated in Northern Kerala.

2. Golden Yellow Glumed navara - it is grown in the second cropping season. it is also known as WhiteGlumed Navara. the seeds are red in colour, but the grains are golden yellow. it grows in south Kerala. it grows upto 1m

Definition

Synonyms

Synonyms in Ayurveda: dhanya, vrihi, shali, shalibheda, dirghashuka, vrihibheda, cina, dardura, dusaka, hayanaka, jatumukha, kalama, kardama shali, kuruvinda

-Vrīhi (व्रीहि) is a Sanskrit word for a variety of rice (ṣaṣṭika) which is said to have an inferior quality, according to Caraka in his Carakasaṃhitā sūtrasthāna (chapter 27), a classical Āyurvedic work. The plant Vrīhi is part of the Śūkadhānyavarga group of medicinal plants, referring to the “group of awned grains”. Caraka defined such groups (vargas) based on the dietic value of the plant. Vrīhi is said to be sweet and guru, but has amlapāka and as such aggravates pitta.
Rasa: Kashaya Madhura
Guna: Guru Laghu Snigdha
Veerya: Sheetha
Vipaka: Maduram
Karma: Kaphahara Pittahara Vatahara

Rice is a nutritive, soothing, tonic herb that is diuretic, reduces lactation, improves digestion and controls sweating

The rhizome is taken internally in the treatment of night sweats, especially in cases of tuberculosis and chronic pneumonia

Cultivation:

Rice can be grown in the moist tropics, subtropics and warm temperate zone, succeeding at elevations up to 2,500 metres in tropical areas. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 20 - 30°c, but can tolerate 10 - 36°c. Growth ceases below 10°c and plants have no tolerance to frost. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,500 - 2,000mm, but tolerates 1,000 - 4,000mm.
Requires a wet to inundated soil and a position in full sun. Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 7, tolerating 4.5 - 9
Depending upon variety, rice can mature a crop of seed in anything from 60 - 200 days.
There are many named varieties that have been developed from the original wild form and can be grown in a wide diversity of climates and soil types[

200

]. These can be grouped into three main forms:-
Japonica - developed in the cooler regions of the tropics and subtropics, it can also be grown in warm temperate areas. Small to medium plants, they develop few tillers and produce short, roundish grains that tend to be moist and sticky when cooked.
Javanica (often called tropical Japonica) - grown at higher elevations in the tropics, they are tall plants that develop few tillers. They produce long, broad, thick grains.
Indica - the major form of rice, cultivated widely at lower to medium elevations in the tropics and subtropics. Tall plants, they form many tillers and produce slender, short to long grains that are drier and flakier when cooked
There are many different cultivars of each form. Some of these cultivars are starchy and are more suited to use in cakes, soups, pastry, breakfast foods etc. Other cultivars have a sweeter, glutinous texture, these are used for special purposes such as sweetmeats
Within these divisions, the varieties are further defined by whether they have short, medium or long grains. Long grained forms usually have the highest value, though short-grained forms are preferred in many countries.

Propogation:

Seed

Harvesting:

The rhizomes are harvested at the end of the growing season and dried for use in decoctions

Phytochemistry:

Brown rice protein contains in g/16g N: 4.6 g isoleucine, 7.9 g leucine, 3.6 g lysine, 5.1 g phenylalanine, 4.7 g tyrosine, 5.3 g total sulfur amino acids, 2.8 g methionine, 3.6 g threonine, 1.4 g tryptophane, and 6.4 g valine (Rutger, 1981). Based on 68–84 analyses, Miller (1958) reports that the straw contains 88.0–93.4% DM (mean 91.5) and, on a zero moisture basis 2.8–6.2% CP (mean 4–2), 0.7–2.3% EE (mean 1.4), 27.6–38.3% CF (mean 35.1), 14.0–20.1% ash (mean 16.9), and 36.6–48.1% NFE (mean 42.4). Han and Andersons analyses (1974) are similar, 0.19 mcal/100 g, 4.5% CP, 1.5% EE, 35% CF, 4.5% lignin, 34.0% cellulose, 42.0% NFE, 16.5% ash, 14.0% silica, 0.19% Ca, 1.2% K, 0.4% Mg, 0.10% P, and 0.10% S.

PHARMACOLOGY:

IMPORTANT FORMULATIONS –

1.Brahma Rasayana,

2.Stanyajanana Kaska Curna

Parts used for medicinal purpose

Seed, ,

Dosage:

50 g. of the drug for decoction.

Antidote:

Substitute:

-Baby Food Substitute: Boiled Navara can be used as infant food; it’s safe and can give the baby energy. It can also be used as a natural ‘weight gainer’ for infants who are under weight.

Adultrants:

Adulteration in rice either adventitiously or deliberately is feasible right from crop harvest to till the grain reaches to the hands of the consumers. The common forms of rice prone to adulteration are brown rice, polished rice, rice flour, rice cake and rice bran oil

In any food product, adulteration may be due to 1) substitution with look-alike material of low cost, 2) substitution with low quality material, 3) dilution of the original product, and, 4) mislabelling of age and origin of the material.

Deceitful trader adulterate basmati rice with cross bread basmati varieties and long grain non-basmati varieties.

Commercial value:

-Rice is such an important and widespread source of food, it has gained other meanings. In Asia ‘rice is life’: it is culturally and spiritually crucial to people’s lives. Freshly harvested, unmilled rice grains are used all over Asia in ceremonies and rituals especially those related to fertility. A freshly harvested panicle of rice is often placed over the inside of the house or rice store doorway as a blessing and as protection for the occupants and contents of the house.

In Malaysia the ‘Bario’ cultivar is the most prized and expensive rice because of its wonderful aroma and taste. It is only grown in the remote Kelabit highlands of Sarawak in Borneo. Local people call it ‘money rice’.

Morphology:

Root fibrous, thin, cylindrical, 5-15 cm in length and 0.05-0.1 cm thick with a few rootlets, soft, smooth; creamish-brown to greyish-brown.

A grass which can grow to over 1 m tall, or to 5 m long in deep water.

Stem and leaves: The stem is upright and composed of a series of joint-like nodes, with a leaf growing from each node.

Seeds: The seeds (or grain) grow on branch-like spikes which arch over. The grain is the most economically important part of the rice plant, and its endosperm is the final product consumed.

Histology:

Root – Shows single layered epidermis consisting of thin-walled, rectangular cells with a few unicellular root hairs; exodermis 1-2 layered, composed of thick-walled, sclerenchymatous cells; cortex differentiated into three zones; outer 5-8 and inner 2-3 layered, both consisting of round to oval, parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces; middle zone consisting of radially elongated, parenchymatous cells having very large air-spaces; endodermis and pericycle both single layered; xylem and phloem form equal number of bundles arranged alternately with each other; centre occupied by a small pith composed of polygonal, thick-walled, sclerenchymatous cells.

powder- Greyish-cream; shows groups of sclerenchymatous cells, pitted vessels and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate.

Geographical distribution:

Three diversity centers were detected for isozyme variation including South Asia, China and Southeast Asia Oryza sativa is cultivated in Europe, Africa, tropical and temperate Asia, Australia, and North and South America.

ECOLOGICAL ASPECT:

Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, rice is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.2 to 42.9 dm (mean of 85 cases = 15.2), annual temperature of 8.4 to 27.8°C (mean of 85 cases = 23.0), and pH of 4.3 to 8.7 (mean of 72 cases = 6.3) (Duke, 1978, 1979). According to Rutger (1981), fertile soils are desired, with pH between 5 and 7.5. Rice is a tropical, subtropical and warm temperate crop, growing best where summer temperatures of 24–25°C prevail and in full sun. Rice grows as far north in Japan as 42°N and as far south in Queensland as 23°S. On the south side of the Himalayas rice is grown to 2,400 m. Rice mostly cultured on the humid coastal lowlands and deltas of the world. Growth arrested below 10°C; rice exhibits little or no frost tolerance. Temperatures of 0.5 to 5°C are lethal after 24 hours. Aquatic rice may require a dependable supply of fresh, slowly moving water, at temperature of 21–29°C. If rainfall is less than 125 cm annually, irrigation is used to make up deficit. Rice is said to require the equivalent of 8–10 dm during its growing period. Crop is salt tolerant at some stages of growth; during germination but not seedling stages rice has even been grown to reclaim salty soils. Terrain should be level enough to permit flooding, yet sloped enough to drain readily. Soil should be of a fine texture that holds water or should have a subsoil which holds water with little seepage. Friable loam overlying heavy clay, as in many coastal and delta areas, is ideal (Reed, 1976). Although most rice cvs are shortday, there are photosensitive and long day cvs.

Plant conservation:

General Use:

Rice is a staple food and used by many ways as under:

 Staple food: Rice is used as a staple food by more than 60 percent of world population. Cooking of rice is a most popular way of eating.

 Starch: Rice starch is used in making ice cream, custard powder, puddings, gel, distillation of potable alcohol, etc.

 Rice Bran: It is used in confectionery products like bread, snacks, cookies and biscuits. The defatted bran is also used as cattle feed, organic fertilizer (compost), and medicinal purpose and in wax making.

 Rice Bran Oil: Rice bran oil is used as edible oil, in soap and fatty acids manufacturing. It is also used in cosmetics, synthetic fibers, detergents and emulsifiers. It is nutritionally superior and provides better protection to heart.

 Flaked Rice: It is made from parboiled rice and used in many preparations.

 Puffed rice: It is made from paddy and used as whole for eating.

 Parched Rice: It is made from parboiled rice and is easily digestible.

 Rice Husk: It is used as a fuel, in board and paper manufacturing, packing and building materials and as an insulator. It is also used for compost making and chemical derivatives.

 Rice Broken: It is used for making food item like breakfast cereals, baby foods, rice flour, noodles, rice cakes, etc. and also used as a poultry feed.

 Rice straw: Mainly used as animal feed, fuel, mushroom bed, for mulching in horticultural crops and in preparation of paper and compost.

 Paddy as a Seed: The paddy is used as seed.

heart. 

 Flaked Rice: It is made from parboiled rice 

and used in many preparations. 

 Puffed rice: It is made from paddy and used 

as whole for eating. 

 Parched Rice: It is made from parboiled rice 

and is easily digestible. 

 Rice Husk: It is used as a fuel, in board and 

paper manufacturing, packing and building 

materials and as an insulator. It is also used 

for compost making and chemical derivatives. 

 Rice Broken: It is used for making food item 

like breakfast cereals, baby foods, rice flour, 

noodles, rice cakes, etc. and also used as a 

poultry feed. 

 Rice straw: Mainly used as animal feed, fuel, 

mushroom bed, for mulching in horticultural 

crops and in preparation of paper and 

compost. 

 Paddy as a Seed: The paddy is used as seed. 

Therapeutic Uses:

Stanyaksaya, Mutrakrcchra

Systemic Use:

Rice is a nutritive, soothing, tonic herb that is diuretic, reduces lactation, improves digestion and controls sweating

The seeds are taken internally in the treatment of urinary dysfunction. The seeds, or the germinated seeds, are taken to treat excessive lactation. The germinated seeds are used to treat poor appetite, indigestion abdominal discomfort and bloating
The grains are often cooked with herbs to make a medicinal gruel

The rhizome is taken internally in the treatment of night sweats, especially in cases of tuberculosis and chronic pneumonia. The rhizomes are harvested at the end of the growing season and dried for use in decoctions

Administration:

-A poultice of rice may be used as a substitute for one of linseed meal, and finelypowdered rice flour may be used, like that of wheat flour, for erysipelas, burns, scalds, etc.

Pharmacological:

rA decoction of rice, commonly called ricewater is recommended in the Pharmacopceia of India as an excellent demulcent, refrigerant drink in febrile and inflammatory diseases, and in dysuria and similar affections. It may be acidulated with lime-juice and sweetened with sugar. This may also be used as an enema in affections of the bowels.A decoction of rice, commonly called ricewater is recommended in the Pharmacopceia of India as an excellent demulcent, refrigerant drink in febrile and inflammatory diseases, and in dysuria and similar affections. It may be acidulated with lime-juice and sweetened with sugar. This may also be used as an enema in affections of the bowels.Roots are diuretic and ash of husk is a fine abrasive constituent in tooth powder. The endosperm or rice is amyliferous and nutritive. Any gruel could be made sour by keeping it sealed in a vessel for seven days or until it is sour. It is filtered before use.---rice is 

considered to be acrid, oleaginous, tonic, 

aphrodisiac, fattening, diuretic and useful in 

biliousness 

Clinical trials:

The Rice Annotation Project Database (RAP-DB): hub for Oryza sativa ssp. japonica genome information

H Ohyanagi, T Tanaka, H Sakai… - Nucleic acids …, 2006 - academic.oup.com

Influence of ultrasonic stimulation on the growth and proliferation of Oryza sativa Nipponbare callus cells

Y Liu, A Yoshikoshi, B Wang, A Sakanishi - Colloids and Surfaces

Amylose content in rice (Oryza sativa) affects performance, glycemic and lipidic metabolism in rats

CC Denardin, N Boufleur, P Reckziegel, LP Silva… - Ciência Rural, 2012 - SciELO Brasil

Research:

Effect of processing on nutritional composition, phytate and functional properties of rice (Oryza sativa L) flour

FO Abulude - Nigerian Food Journal, 2004 - ajol.info

Growth Response of Rice (Oryza sativa) and Red Rice (O. sativa) in a Replacement Series Study

Leopoldo E. Estorninos, Jr., David R. Gealy and Ronald E. Talbert

Weed Technology

Effects of different levels of zinc on growth and yield of red amaranth (Amaranthus sp.) and rice (Oryza sativa, Variety-BR49)

NJ Malik, AS Chamon, MN Mondol, SF Elahi… - … of Young Researchers, 2011 - banglajol.info

Precautions:

To lower your exposure to arsenic, Consumer Reports offers these tips:

Test your water. If your home is not on a public water system, have your water tested for arsenic and lead.

Change the way you cook rice. Boiling rice with more water than you need and draining it afterward removes about 30% of the inorganic arsenic. Try using a ratio of 1 cup of rice to 6 cups of water.

Eat a varied diet. Some vegetables accumulate arsenic when grown in contaminated soil. To help, clean vegetables thoroughly, especially potato skins.

Eat other grains. Wheat and oats have lower levels of arsenic than rice. For those who need to eat gluten-free, quinoa, millet, and amaranth may be better options.

Toxicity studies:

Arsenic is found in a wide variety of rice and rice products, sometimes at levels that are higher than safe limits set for drinking water, new tests confirm.

Based on its tests of 60 products, Consumer Reports says kids and adults should watch how much rice they eat from various sources (like rice milk and rice cereal) to lower their exposure to arsenic, which has been linked to cancer, heart disease, and poor brain function in young children.

Use in other system of medicine:

Decoction of roots and rhizomes for anuria.

- Lye from burned culms is considered abortive.

- Decoction and poultices of grains are emollient.

- Poultice of soft rice, applied to back and chest for coughs and bronchitis.

- Rice water used as an enema.

- Rice, boiled, drained and mashed, is made into a paste or molded into balls and applied to boils, sores, swellings, and skin blemishes.

- Sticky glutinous rice used to treat upset stomachs, heartburn, and indigestion.

- Extracts of brown rice have been used to treat warts, breast and stomach cancers. Also used for indigestion, nausea, and diarrhea.

- In Cambodia, hulls of mature plants used for treating dysentery.

- In Malaysia, boiled rice greens used as eye lotion and inflammation of inner body tissues.

- Dried powdered rice used for skin ailments.

- In India, rice water is prescribed as ointment to counteract inflamed surfaces.

- In Ayurveda, Njavara (Oryza sativa) is widely used as health food and in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, paralysis, neurodegenerative diseases, and in rejuvenation therapy.

CONCLUSION:

Decoction of O. sativa possesses cooling, epistaxis, and diuretic properties, and is used for the treatment of dysuria and various inflammatory diseases. Ashes of the straw is used for the treatment of wounds.6 Gruel of O. sativa is used for treating diarrhea, dysentery, bowel complaints, and indigestion.7 Powder is applied topically to cure itching. It is reported that the plant possessed antiinflammatory property. Ethyl alcohol and butanol extract obtain from leaves possessed antioxidant property

Ayurvedic Formulations:

Common Ayurvedic Formulations of dhanya with their Indications
Brahma Rasayana

KEY WORDS: dhanya ,Oryza sativa Linn., Oryza plena Chowdhury ,sali